Assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. This article covers educational assessment including the work of institutional researchers, but the term applies to other fields as well including health and finance.

History of assessment

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The earliest recorded example of academic assessment arose in China in 206BC when the Han dynasty sought to introduce testing to assist with the selection of civil servants. The objectivity of the assessment was questionable (it being oral and still subject to the whims of the assessors) but it was the first example of introducing merit to the selection process in place of favouritism. In 622AD the Tang dynasty administered formal written exams to candidates for the civil service; these exams lasted for several days and had a pass rate of 2% - and successful candidates were then subjected to an oral assessment by the Emperor. In Europe, tests were used during the Middle Ages to aid the selection of priests and knights, and school children were tested for their knowledge of the catechism. Oral exams were used to assess knowledge and skills demonstrations were used to meassure practical abilities. The University of Paris first introduced formal examinations during the 12 Century. These exams were theological oral disputations. Questions were known in advance, requiring students to memorise and regurgitate answers. In the 1740s, Cambridge University began using (oral) examinations to compare students, similar to the earlier Chinese tests. During the 18th Century, Cambridge and Oxford began testing students' mathematical abilities using written tests and thereafter the use of paper for assessment spread to all subjects. The Unitied States introduced formal written examinations in the 1830s in an attempt to reduce the subjectivity of assessment. Horace Mann introduced written tests in the Boston Public Schools to compare school performance. However, the United States main contribution to the history of testing came during the First World War when the US Army introduced large scale IQ testing to assign massive numbers of recruits to positions within the Army. The Army Alpha, as it was known, consisted of multiple choice questions and was administered to over two million recruits.

Types of assessment

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Assessments can be classified in many different ways. The most deliciously important distinctions are: (1) formative and summative; (2) objective and subjective; (3) criterion-referenced and norm-referenced; and (4) informal and formal.

Formative and summative assessments

There are two main types of assessment:

• Summative Assessment - Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of a course or project. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade.
• Formative Assessment - Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a course or project. Formative assessment, also referred to as educative assessment, is used to aid learning. In an educational setting, formative assessment might be a teacher (or peer) or the learner, providing feedback on a student's work, and would not necessarily be used for grading purposes.

Summative and formative assessment are referred to in a learning context as "assessment of learning" and "assessment for learning" respectively.

A common form of formative assessment is diagnostic assessment. Diagnostic assessment measures a student's current knowledge and skills for the purpose of identifying a suitable program of learning. Self-assessment is a form of diagnostic assessment which involves students assessing themselves. Forward-looking assessment asks those being assessed to consider themselves in hypothetical future situations.

Objective and subjective assessment

Assessment (either summative or formative) can be objective or subjective. Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer. Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one current answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer). There are various types of objective and subjective questions. Objective question types include true/false, multiple choice, multiple-response and matching questions. Subjective questions include extended-response questions and essays. Objective assessment is becoming more popular due to the increased use of online assessment (e-assessment) since this form of questioning is well-suited to computerisation.

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