This article is about institutions as social mechanisms. Please see Organization for formal establishments.

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Institutions are social structures and social mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of two or more individuals. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behavior. The term, institution, is commonly applied to customs and behavior patterns important to a society, as well as to particular formal organizations of government and public service. As structures and mechanisms of social order among humans, institutions are one of the principal objects of study in the social sciences, including sociology, political science and economics. Institutions are a central concern for law, the formal regime for political rule-making and enforcement. The creation and evolution of institutions is a primary topic for history.

Aspects of Institutions

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Although individual, formal organizations, commonly identified as "institutions," may be deliberately and intentionally created by people, the development and functioning of institutions in society in general may be regarded as an instance of emergence; that is, institutions arise, develop and function in a pattern of social self-organization, which goes beyond the conscious intentions of the individual humans involved.

As mechanisms of social cooperation, institutions are manifest in both objectively real, formal organizations, such as the U.S. Congress, the Roman Catholic Church or the Bank of England, and, also, in informal social order and organization, reflecting human psychology, culture, habits and customs. Most important institutions, considered abstractly, have both objective and subjective aspects: examples include money and marriage. The institution of money encompasses many formal organizations, including banks and government treasury departments and stock exchanges, which may be termed, "institutions," as well as subjective experiences, which guide people in their pursuit of personal economic well-being and wealth. Powerful institutions are able to imbue a paper currency with certain value, and to induce millions into cooperative production and trade in pursuit of economic ends abstractly denominated in that currency's units. The subjective experience of money is so pervasive and persuasive that economists talk of the "money illusion" and try to disabuse their students of it, in preparation for learning economic analysis.

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BBC News | Science/Nature | World Edition

'Lost towns' discovered in Amazon
Thu, 28 Aug 2008 21:37:07 -0000
The remote Amazon basin was once home to complex urban communities, according to a study in Science journal.
Fly's brain 'senses swat threat'
Thu, 28 Aug 2008 19:12:17 -0000
Researchers in the US say they have solved the mystery of why flies are so hard to swat.
Arctic ice 'is at tipping point'
Thu, 28 Aug 2008 10:36:56 -0000
The area covered by sea ice in the Arctic is now the second smallest on record, scientists reveal.

L.A. Times - Science

Ralph D. Feigin, 70; pediatrician built Baylor and Texas Children's Hospital into major teaching institutions
Fri, 29 Aug 2008 00:00:00 -0700
Dr. Ralph D. Feigin, the pediatrician who built the Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital into major teaching and research institutions and who wrote the book on children's infectious diseases, died Aug. 14 at The Methodist Hospital in Houston. He was 70.
Diabetes researchers convert pancreas cells to produce insulin
Thu, 28 Aug 2008 00:00:00 -0700
The Harvard study may ultimately shift treatment options away from stem cells for a variety of diseases. Injecting a cocktail of proteins directly into the bodies of diabetic mice, researchers have converted normal pancreas cells into insulin-producing cells -- a genetic transformation that could pave the way for treating intractable diseases and injuries using a patient's own supply of healthy tissue.
Number of Americans without health insurance falls
Wed, 27 Aug 2008 00:00:00 -0700
The Census Bureau says the 2007 decrease is mostly due to expanded government coverage for children. Thanks mostly to expanded government health coverage for children, the number of people without health insurance fell in 2007 for the first time since President Bush took office, the U.S. Census Bureau said Tuesday.

Reuters: Science News

Gustav kills nearly 70 in Caribbean, aims at U.S.
Fri, 29 Aug 2008 02:46:15 -0400
KINGSTON (Reuters) - Tropical Storm Gustav was blamed on Thursday for at least 68 deaths in the Caribbean and U.S. forecasters said it could hit New Orleans and Gulf of Mexico oil fields as a potentially powerful hurricane next week.
Canada wants more study on polar bear protection
Thu, 28 Aug 2008 19:12:59 -0400
INUVIK, Northwest Territories (Reuters) - Canada, criticized by environmentalists for not adequately protecting polar bears from the effects of climate change, said on Thursday it will take more time study its next step.
Why it's so hard to swat a fly
Fri, 29 Aug 2008 03:54:00 -0400
CHICAGO (Reuters) - The brains of flies are wired to avoid the swatter, U.S. researchers said on Thursday.

AP Top Science News At 3:49 p.m. EDT

Arctic sea ice drops to 2nd lowest level on record
By SETH BORENSTEIN and DAN JOLING Wed, 27 Aug 2008 23:23:14 -0000
WASHINGTON (AP) -- More ominous signs Wednesday have scientists saying that a global warming "tipping point" in the Arctic seems to be happening before their eyes: Sea ice in the Arctic Ocean is at its second lowest level in about 30 years....
Purdue reprimands fusion scientist for misconduct
Wed, 27 Aug 2008 23:11:17 -0000
WEST LAFAYETTE, Ind. (AP) -- Purdue University on Wednesday reprimanded a scientist who has been accused of falsifying claims he produced nuclear fusion in tabletop experiments....
Fay leaves behind lots of water for Fla. lake
By BRIAN SKOLOFF Wed, 27 Aug 2008 22:14:56 -0000
WEST PALM BEACH, Fla. (AP) -- Tropical Storm Fay brought some good news to the state's parched Everglades and its liquid heart, Lake Okeechobee - lots and lots of water....

NOVA scienceNOW | PBS

NOVA scienceNOW: Phoenix Mars Lander
NOVA Mon, 28 Jul 2008 13:00:00 -0500
NASA's latest robot has already found frozen water and is looking for more signs that the Red Planet could support life.
NOVA scienceNOW: Brain Trauma
NOVA Mon, 28 Jul 2008 13:00:00 -0500
Even so-called "mild" head injuries turn out to be anything but.
NOVA scienceNOW: Mammoth Mystery
NOVA Mon, 28 Jul 2008 13:00:00 -0500
A pair of mammoth skeletons is found locked together by their tusks. What happened?

Newsweek Technology Headlines

Virtual Viewpoint
Thu, 21 Aug 2008 00:00:00 -0000
A new online software service allows you to build three-dimensional scenes out of dozens of photographs.
Of Sludge and Salad: Wastewater Greens the World's Gardens
Tue, 19 Aug 2008 03:14:52 -0000
You might want to hold your nose for this one.
1-800-CALL-DAD
Mon, 18 Aug 2008 00:00:00 -0000
A new service lets other motorists notify parents how their teens are driving.

Innovation

Facebook, the movie: the Facebook group
cgaylord Thu, 28 Aug 2008 20:48:32 -0000
Aaron Sorkin is doing a movie about Facebook. The whole thing seems fake at first. The man behind “The West Wing,” “Studio 60,” and “A Few Good Men” has a history of unease with web culture – he even wrote a West Wing episode about it. So a bunch of bloggers scratched their heads when a [...]
Sign language via cellphone
briefs Thu, 28 Aug 2008 17:53:51 -0000
For people diagnosed with hearing impairments, using a cellphone can be tough. Speed of communication depends on how quickly someone can send a text message. Researchers in the US, however, have devised a way for two people to use American Sign Language via video phones. It’s a work in progress, with a field test planned [...]
When radar doesn’t work
at-a-glance Thu, 28 Aug 2008 17:49:40 -0000
Click on the thumbnail to see the full image. . . . . .

Science News - UPI.com

UPI NewsTrack Health and Science News
Thu, 28 Aug 2008 17:44:00 -0400
Viagra might prevent heart attack, stroke ... Swiss 3-D system aids weather forecasting ... Potential type 1 diabetes therapy studied ... New microwaveable ceramic material created ... Health/Science news from UPI.
NASA delays Atlantis move to launch pad
Thu, 28 Aug 2008 17:40:59 -0400
CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla., Aug. 28 (UPI) -- The U.S. space agency says it has postponed space shuttle Atlantis' scheduled move to its Kennedy Space Center launch pad.
New underground CO2 monitoring begins
Thu, 28 Aug 2008 16:40:34 -0400
WASHINGTON, Aug. 28 (UPI) -- U.S. Department of Energy scientists say they've started tracking carbon dioxide movement nearly 2 miles underground at the Cranfield, Miss., oilfield.

 

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