Computer software (or simply software) is the programs and procedures that enable a computer to perform a specific task, as opposed to the physical components of the system (hardware). This includes application software such as a word processor, which enables a user to perform a task, and system software such as an operating system, which enables other software to run properly, by interfacing with hardware and with other software.

The term "software" was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1957. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data. The concept of reading different sequences of instructions into the memory of a device to control computations was invented by Charles Babbage as part of his difference engine. The theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Hally, Mike (2005:79). Electronic brains/Stories from the dawn of the computer age. British Broadcasting Corporation and Granta Books, London. ISBN 1-86-207663-4.

Relationship to hardware

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Computer software is so called in contrast to computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. In computers, software is loaded into RAM and executed in the central processing unit. At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions (object code), which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is generally written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler.

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U.S. EPA Water News

U.S.-Mexico Environmental Partnership Bringing Cleaner Water and Air To Border Communities
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 17:52:45 -0400
(Dallas, Texas – September 5, 2008) At a ceremony concluding this year’s Border 2012 National Coordinators meeting held in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, the U.S
EPA Orders Access To Construct Alternate Water Line For Hudson Dredging Project
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 17:01:41 -0400

U.S.-Mexico environmental partnership bringing cleaner water and air to border communities. Federal, state, tribal, and local partners highlight efforts at annual meeting
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 15:30:18 -0400
(09/05/08) LOS ANGELES – At a ceremony concluding this year’s Border 2012 National Coordinators meeting held in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, the U.S
Georgia Institute of Technology Receives EPA Safe Drinking Water Research Grant
Thu, 04 Sep 2008 16:35:36 -0400
(Atlanta – Ga. - Sept. 4, 2008) Today, the U.S
EPA Awards $600,000 to University of Missouri-Columbia
Thu, 04 Sep 2008 16:30:29 -0400
Environmental News FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE (Kansas City, Kan., Sept. 4, 2008) - EPA has awarded $600,000 to the University of Missouri-Columbia for designing new technology to improve the detection of viruses, bacteria and chemicals in drinking water
EPA awards Montana State University almost $600K for safe drinking water research
Thu, 04 Sep 2008 15:33:41 -0400
(Denver, Colo. -- September 4, 2008) Today, EPA announced the award of $599,996 to Montana State University in Bozeman, Mont., to create novel, rapid methodologies for detecting pathogenic waterborne microbial contaminants that can be applied both locally and nationally

USGS Newsroom

Science that Weathers the Storm...USGS Scientists in the Field Preparing for Hurricane Ike
OC_Web@usgs.gov (Office of Communications Web Group)Reporters: Want to accompany USGS scientists as they install storm surge sensors? Contact Leroy Pearman at 321-354-5248 or lpearman@usgs.gov. US Geological Survey (USGS) scientists will be installing storm-surge sensors to prepare for Hurricane Ike. These temporary devices are installed just hours before an impending storm and provide additional monitoring data in critical areas needed for effective forecasting and emergency response. "We could not accurately forecast river flows and water-levels without the data and support we receive from the USGS," said Dave Reed, Hydrologist-In-Charge of the National Weather Service Lower Mississippi River Forecast Center in Slidell, LA. "When river and tide data are not available, our job of forecasting is much more difficult and typically results in diminished accuracy of those forecasts." USGS scientists will be installing storm surge sensors to prepare for Hurricane Ike. A special interactive USGS Water Hazards Map will be available soon, which will provide real-time flooding and storm surge data from streamgages and temporary devices. This information is imperative to local, State and Federal officials in order to forecast floods and coordinate flood-response activities in the affected area. Track streamflow and water levels and access other USGS Hurricane Ike efforts by visiting http://www.usgs.gov/ike. Access real-time data from over 7,500 streamgages across the country by visiting the USGS Water Watch Website at http://water.usgs.gov/waterwatch/. USGS has a network of rugged, inexpensive water-level and barometric-pressure sensors, called storm-surge sensors, which will be installed right before Ike hits land. These sensors provide information about storm surge duration, times of surge arrival and retreat, and maximum depths, which is useful in forecasting and modeling future events. Tropical Storms Katrina and Rita vividly demonstrated that coastal storm surge can be as dangerous as inland flooding caused by rain. For more than 125 years, the USGS has monitored flow in selected streams and rivers across the United States and does so in cooperation with over 850 federal, state and local agencies. Contacts: If you would like to know more specific information about USGS Hurricane Ike response activities in your area, please contact the appropriate person listed below. Alabama: Athena Clark, 334-395-4141, athclark@usgs.gov Florida: Barry Rosen, 407-803-5508, brosen@usgs.gov Georgia: Ed Martin, 770-903-9166, ehmartin@usgs.gov Louisiana: Charles Demas, 225-298-5481 Ext. 3117, crdemas@usgs.gov Mississippi: Michael Plunkett, 601-933-2940, plunkett@usgs.gov South Carolina, Eric Strom, 803-750-6109, ewstrom@usgs.gov Texas: Robert Joseph, 512-927-3500, rljoseph@usgs.gov National Flood Specialist: Robert Holmes, 573-308-3581, bholmes@usgs.gov
Science that Weathers the Storm...Track Flooding During Tropical Storm Hanna in Real-Time
OC_Web@usgs.gov (Office of Communications Web Group)Real-time flooding and storm surge information is available as Tropical Storm Hanna approaches the east coast by visiting the interactive US Geological Survey (USGS) Water Hazards Map. The map provides immediate flooding and storm surge data from real-time streamgages in the affected area, which is imperative to local, State and Federal officials in order to forecast floods and coordinate flood-response activities in the affected area. "These coordinated actions will ensure timely and uninterrupted water information for forecasters, emergency managers, scientists and the general public," says Matthew Larsen, USGS Associate Director for Water. "Improved flood monitoring and assessment will help reduce the risks to coastal communities, property and human life." Access current streamflow in the context of historical conditions, as well as real-time water quality and groundwater information by visiting http://water.usgs.gov/waterwatch/hanna.  Access other USGS Tropical Storm Hanna efforts by visiting http://www.usgs.gov/hanna. For more than 125 years, the USGS has monitored flow in selected streams and rivers across the U.S. The USGS, in cooperation with 1400 federal, state and local agencies, collects data from more than 7,500 continuous recording streamgages, most of which provide near real-time data in 15-minute increments. These data are used to develop flood forecasts, to manage flood control and coordinate flood response activities, to manage water supplies and droughts, to keep our waters clean, and to provide information for many recreational activities. Contacts: National Flood Specialist: Robert Holmes, 573-308-3581, bholmes@usgs.gov. If you would like to know more specific information about USGS Tropical Storm Hanna response activities in your area, please contact the appropriate person listed below. Delaware, Holly Weyers, 302-734-2506 (ext. 224), hsweyers@usgs.gov Florida, Barry Rosen, 407-803-5508, brosen@usgs.gov Georgia, Brian McCallum, 404-375-2505, bemccall@usgs.gov Maryland, Ed Doheny, 443-498-5535, ejdoheny@usgs.gov North Carolina, Jerad Bales, 919-571-4048, jdbales@usgs.gov South Carolina, Eric Strom, 803-750-6109, ewstrom@usgs.gov Virginia, Mark Bennett, 804-261-2643, mrbennet@usgs.gov  
Study: Undiscovered Minerals in the Andes
OC_Web@usgs.gov (Office of Communications Web Group)South America holds treasure of Copper, Molybdenum, Gold and Silver Deposits of undiscovered copper, molybdenum, gold and silver may be present in the Andes Mountains of South America, according to a new scientific assessment. The assessment estimates that the Andes may hold 750 million metric tons of copper in undiscovered porphyry copper deposits. Mining from these types of deposits provides more than 50 percent of world copper supply. The undiscovered porphyry copper deposits also have the potential to contain 20 million tons of molybdenum, 13,000 tons of gold and 250,000 tons of silver. Molybdenum, known to occur naturally with copper, is used in industry to harden steel and for catalysts, lubricants, and pigments. Estimated undiscovered molybdenum resources in the Andes represent more than double the current world reserves of 8.6 million tons. The Andes were studied as part of the first global mineral resource assessment, which is being led by the U.S. Geological Survey. The USGS jointly prepared and published the Andes assessment with experts from the Geological Surveys of Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Peru. The partnership that contributed to the assessment is "a hallmark of international scientific collaboration," said USGS Director Mark Myers. "The expertise of our international collaborators is indispensable to our ability to undertake a worldwide assessment of numerous undiscovered mineral commodities in a variety of geologic environments." The estimated copper resources in the Andes represent about 2.5 times the amount of undiscovered copper resources that was estimated for the United States in a 1998 USGS assessment of all major types of copper deposits. Not all of the estimated undiscovered mineral deposits are likely to be discovered and developed. The USGS Mineral Resources Program provides scientific information for objective resource assessments and unbiased research results on mineral potential, production, consumption and environmental effects. This program is the sole federal source for this information. The complete report, Quantitative Mineral Resource Assessment of Copper, Molybdenum, Gold, and Silver in Undiscovered Porphyry Copper Deposits in the Andes Mountains of South America, by C.G. Cunningham and others, is available online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1253.

Water Resources Management

Vahid Alavian on Water Week 2007
B-SPAN Water, water everywhere, nor any drop to drink, was the cry of the ancient mariner. But for development organizations, managing precious H2O is more than just a poetic albatross over a billion people lack access to a reliable water supply, and more than half the population of the developing world lives without proper sanitation. In this plenary address from Water Week 2007, Vahid Alavian, Adviser to the World Banks Energy, Transport and Water department, speaks about the challenges and horizons ahead for water resource management.
3. Closing Plenary
B-SPAN What does climate change mean for Latin Americas water resources and how will regional policy evolve to reflect this? How does the political economy of a country affect their water and sanitation services? Are we integrating science and social science effectively into water resource management? These are just a few of the questions discussed at the closing plenary of Water Week 2007.
2. Sustainability and Development
B-SPAN Without water, life on Earth is impossible. Yet this precious resource is sometimes entirely too scarce for people in developing countries. To propose solutions and create dialogue around this vital issue, the World Bank sponsors Water Week each year, bringing together internal and external experts in the sector. This plenary session on sustainability and growth for the water sector was introduced by Jamal Saghir, the Director of Energy, Transport, and Water for the World Bank, and moderated by Margaret CatleyCarlson, Chair of the Global Water Partnership.
IEG Natural Resources
B-SPAN Plant life exists in a complicated relationship with water—not only as an ingredient for life and photosynthesis, but, through interactions, for the soil and the climate as well. Is this relationship beneficial? Or should the World Bank reconsider reforestation projects in the interests of water conservation and climate change? In this presentation on October 12, 2006, at the World Banks headquarters in Washington, DC, Sampurno Bruijnzeel, Associate Professor of Ecohydrology at Vrije University in Amsterdam, explained why trees contribute to steady flows of clean water, based on 30 years of experience with tropical hydrology. Kenneth Chomitz, Senior Advisor for the World Banks Independent Evaluation Group, chaired the meeting.
Seminar 12 Human Development Access to Water
B-SPAN Although the worlds surface is 70 percent water, it is still a growing problem for natural resource management. Diverted rivers, dams, and drained wetlands are only a few of the difficulties affecting the global water supply. To discuss the issue, the World Bank External Affairs division held this Access to Water session for the Global Issues Seminar Series on January 25, 2006. Students from the Central European University, American University of Beirut, University of Amsterdam, University of Ghana, Sofia University, Sussex University, and several Washington, D.C. area schools joined the seminar, either at the Banks main headquarters or by videoconference. It was chaired by Maya Brahmam, Head of the Speakers Bureau for the Bank.
Water Week 2005 Water, the World Bank and the Media
B-SPAN Water Week 2005 was held from March 1 to 3, 2005 at the World Bank headquarters in Washington. Titled Water Security Policies and Investments, this years Water Week focused on the need to balance infrastructure with institutions and to develop the two realms in tandem. Recognizing that neither infrastructure nor institutions can adequately solve water problems alone, the conference sought to deepen the understanding of the important relationship between sound policies and infrastructure investments.

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