Computer software (or simply software) is the programs and procedures that enable a computer to perform a specific task, as opposed to the physical components of the system (hardware). This includes application software such as a word processor, which enables a user to perform a task, and system software such as an operating system, which enables other software to run properly, by interfacing with hardware and with other software.

The term "software" was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1957. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data. The concept of reading different sequences of instructions into the memory of a device to control computations was invented by Charles Babbage as part of his difference engine. The theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Hally, Mike (2005:79). Electronic brains/Stories from the dawn of the computer age. British Broadcasting Corporation and Granta Books, London. ISBN 1-86-207663-4.

Relationship to hardware

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Computer software is so called in contrast to computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. In computers, software is loaded into RAM and executed in the central processing unit. At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions (object code), which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is generally written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler.

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BBC News | Science/Nature | World Edition

'Jules Verne' begins final voyage
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 22:27:47 -0000
Europe's space freighter undocks from the International Space Station after completing its mission to the orbiting platform.
Universal flu vaccine tests start
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 16:00:21 -0000
A universal flu vaccine which could mean an end to the annual flu jab is being trialled on UK volunteers.
Rosetta probe makes asteroid pass
Sat, 06 Sep 2008 20:12:51 -0000
Europe's Rosetta space probe makes a close pass of asteroid Steins, taking pictures and recording other scientific data.

NYT > Environment

E.P.A. Issues New Engine Rules
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 05:21:15 -0000
The Environmental Protection Agency on Thursday set stricter antipollution rules for engines that run pleasure boats, lawn mowers and weed trimmers.
19-Square-Mile Ice Sheet Breaks Loose in Canada
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 08:07:03 -0000
A chunk of ice shelf nearly the size of Manhattan has broken away from Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic, scientists said.
Assessing the Value of Small Wind Turbines
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 20:24:06 -0000
Interest for wind turbines small enough to mount on a roof is spreading from coast to coast, even though their installation is hardly ever recouped in electricity savings.

ENN: Climate

Global warming: Western U.S. feels the heat
As pilot Bruce Gordon lifts up from the local airport, the distant perspective of the Teton Range raises the spirits, but the unfolding sight of dying forests sears the soul.
Global Warming: Warmer Seas Linked To Strengthening Hurricanes, According to New Research
The theory that global warming may be contributing to stronger hurricanes in the Atlantic over the past 30 years is bolstered by a new study led by a Florida State University researcher. The study will be published in the Sept. 4 edition of the journal Nature.
New Study Confirms Accuracy of "Hockey Stick" Global Warming Graph
New research now supports the infamous “hockey stick”� graph that shows temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere beginning to skyrocket around the time of the Industrial Revolution, illustrating the link between human activity and global warming.

L.A. Times - Environment

UC Berkeley starts cutting controversial grove
Sat, 06 Sep 2008 00:00:00 -0700
4 tree-sitters are isolated as the school starts cutting trees on a site where an athletic facility is planned. The University of California moved quickly Friday to begin cutting trees in a grove on campus where tree-sitters have staged a protest for the last 21 months in a bid to block construction of an athletic facility.
Trucking firms line up for ports' clean-air programs
Sat, 06 Sep 2008 00:00:00 -0700
A major consideration for plans to reduce pollution at the Los Angeles and Long Beach facilities was whether enough haulers would apply. Following weeks of worry about whether they could meet their own deadlines, Los Angeles and Long Beach port officials said Friday that they were closing in on having enough trucking companies lined up to get their clean-air programs off the ground in October.
Hanna-Ike-Josephine storm trio isn't an anomaly
Sat, 06 Sep 2008 00:00:00 -0700
Global warming can't be blamed for the trifecta -- headed toward the Southeast U.S. -- meteorologists say. It's just 'peak season in an active hurricane cycle.' Despite the prospect of three major tropical storms heading toward the Southeastern United States, meteorologists say that the conga-line assault is not particularly unusual in the stormy history of the region.

National Geographic News

WEEK IN PHOTOS: Virgins Gather, Freak Hailstorm, More
Thu, 04 Sep 2008 00:00:00 -0000
Hurricane Gustav inspired a bit of bathing, virgins awaited a king in Africa, hail spurred "snowball fights" in Kenya, and more.
Florida Keys Evacuation Ordered for Hurricane Ike
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 00:00:00 -0000
Hurricane Ike is forecast to hit the islands early next week as a major hurricane. Given the limited escape routes, officials have ordered evacuations to begin Saturday.
Some Congo Troops Leave Troubled Wildlife Park
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 00:00:00 -0000
An agreement between the country's wildlife authority and the army to move troops may help preservation efforts at Virunga National Park, home to rare mountain gorillas.

USDA - Natural Resources

Forest Service Maps and General Guides.
Topographic maps, specialty maps and brochures, national trails, roadless areas.
Plants Database
Classification, characteristics, invasive and noxious plants, alternative crops, distribution maps, fact sheets.
National Water Management Center
Direct assistance, information, and technology on water-related issues for natural resources conservation.

The Economist: The environment

Cars: The road ahead
Thu, 04 Sep 2008 12:30:35 -0000
The world’s carmakers have mapped out their route to a greener futureTHERE is nothing like high oil prices, panic-selling of big cars and the prospect of swingeing new penalties on carbon-spewing vehicles to concentrate the minds of the world’s carmakers. In less than two years something remarkable has happened. Technologies once regarded by horsepower-obsessed marketing departments as politically correct public-relations fluff, never likely to see the light of day, are entering the mainstream just as fast as the car firms can get them there. Only 18 months ago it was common to hear Toyota’s pioneering Prius hybrid joked about as a funny-looking niche vehicle with which Hollywood stars could painlessly flaunt their green credentials. Although General Motors (GM) had exhibited a plug-in hybrid concept car, called the Chevrolet Volt, early in 2007, hardly anyone took seriously the claim that it might reach production in 2010. And just ten months ago carmakers in America were lining up to lobby Congress against proposed legislation that would oblige them to achieve a fleet-average fuel consumption of 35 miles per gallon (mpg) by 2020. It simply could not be done, they wailed. ...
Technology and global warming: The world in a test tube
Thu, 04 Sep 2008 12:30:35 -0000
From plug-ins to planktonic algae, technology is part of the solution to climate change. But which technology?NOTHING about global warming is simple, alas. Meteorological models fry the circuits of the largest supercomputers. Feedback loops and anomalies turbocharge an ill-tempered debate about what will happen where and when. And don’t even start on the politics of negotiating a global agreement on emissions or the intricacies of cap-and-trade. Unfortunately, the technology of climate change is no simpler than anything else. A field that you may think is governed by level-headed, spreadsheet-wielding engineers is alarmingly prone to zealotry and taboos. Climate change is too important and too complex to yield to either. ...
Monsoon floods in India: Bihar's annual sorrow
Thu, 04 Sep 2008 12:30:35 -0000
With some justice, the government gets the blame for a natural disasterAS NEW ORLEANS survived the worst Hurricane Gustav could throw at it, the scale of devastation wrought by another natural fury was becoming horribly apparent. On August 18th the monsoon-swollen river Kosi, a Ganges tributary that flows from Nepal to India, burst an embankment on the Nepali side of the border and flowed into a channel it had abandoned a century earlier. The water gushed into hundreds of villages in the Indian state of Bihar, killing an unknown number and displacing more than 3m, many of whom have been marooned on roofs, trees and tiny islands of dry land. Hundreds of thousands are living in makeshift camps. South Asia’s monsoon rains kill hundreds every year. This summer they have been especially severe, killing nearly 2,000 people in India since June, according to government’s National Disaster Management Division. That total will soon double, at least. Many of the deaths occurred in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. In north-eastern Assam, floodwaters have submerged over a thousand villages and imperilled the state’s rare one-horned rhinoceroses, which have fled a national park for higher ground, putting them within easier reach of poachers. In Bangladesh, flooding has cut off at least 50,000 people. ...

Reuters: Environment

EPA tightens lawn mower, motor boat emission rules
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 10:49:27 -0400
WASHINGTON (Reuters) - Exhaust-spewing lawn mowers and speed boats will get a green make-over under tough new rules from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency designed to reduce smog and save millions of gallons of gasoline.
Best bet to turn the White House green?
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 01:06:24 -0400
WASHINGTON (Reuters) - Who's best equipped to turn the White House green -- John McCain or Barack Obama? Both have made energy security and environmental stewardship part of their presidential campaigns.
U.N. seeks World Heritage status for Iraqi marshes
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 01:40:05 -0400
NAIROBI (Reuters) - The United Nations launched a plan on Friday to have an ancient wetland in southeast Iraq, thought to be the Biblical Garden of Eden, listed as a World Heritage Site.

NPR Topics: Environment

Relief Efforts Under Way In Flood-Stricken Haiti
Sat, 06 Sep 2008 18:23:00 -0400
Haitians are heading to higher ground to escape massive flooding caused by Tropical Storm Hanna, and they're bracing themselves for Hurricane Ike. More than 150 people have been killed.
African Dust Linked To Hurricane Strength
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 17:04:00 -0400
In 2005 and 2006, winds off of Africa contained large amounts of dust, which scientist say may have dampened storms in the Atlantic Ocean. But this year, the air is clear and powerful storms are lining up to strike the U.S.
Study: Sea Levels Won't Rise As Much As Predicted
Fri, 05 Sep 2008 12:02:00 -0400
Sea levels could rise between 2.5 and 6 feet this century as a result of global warming, a new study reports. That estimate is lower than some widely circulated figures.

Environment

The Release of Environmental Sustainability An Evaluation of World Bank Group Support
B-SPAN Washington D.C. � On July 22nd, 2008, the World Bank presented a panel discussion to recognize the release of Environmental Sustainability An Evaluation of World Bank Group Support, written by John Redwood, Jouni Eerikainen, and Ethel Tarazona. Event Chair Vinod Thomas, Director General of the World Banks Independent Evaluation Group, opened the panel by explaining the importance of the report regarding the broader implications for both the Independent Evaluation Group (IEG) and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA).
2. Global Tiger Conservation Initiative Symposium
B-SPAN On June 9 2008, the World Bank launched the Global Tiger Conservation Initiative with a thematic symposium held at the World Banks headquarters in Washington D.C. The event, entitled Tiger Conservation Moving Lessons Learnt Towards a Winning Strategy, brought together tiger conservation experts to discuss lessons in trade, governance and finance, as well as steps going forward in this important effort.
1. Global Tiger Conservation Initiative Symposium
B-SPAN On June 9 2008, the World Bank launched the Global Tiger Conservation Initiative with a thematic symposium held at the World Banks headquarters in Washington D.C. The event, entitled Tiger Conservation Moving Lessons Learnt Towards a Winning Strategy, brought together tiger conservation experts to discuss lessons in trade, governance and finance, as well as steps going forward in this important effort.

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